Feeding Africa’s growing population is a big development challenge for governments, policy makers and agriculture experts. Adding to the challenge is the high level of food loss and waste that most small-scale farmers experience.
The African Postharvest Losses Information System reports indicate that countries in Africa waste more than 30% of fresh fruits and vegetables through inefficient post-harvest management. The impact of this loss and waste is severe on smallholders who rely on farming for a living. The Rockefeller Foundation has warned that inefficient post-harvest infrastructure could cause millions of agriculture-dependent households in Africa to fall back into extreme poverty. The region urgently needs solutions to reduce food loss and waste.
Tanzania is one of the countries that experience this problem. The east African nation is an agriculture-based economy with small-scale farmers dominating the sector. Most small-scale farmers live in areas where access to electricity is limited. As a result, they don’t have cold storage facilities for their fresh vegetables and fruits. With a lack of cold storage, nearly 30% of fresh produce in Tanzania perish before they get to consumers. For fresh tomatoes, as much as 50% is lost before reaching markets due to poor storage conditions.
Recently, solar-powered cold storage facilities have emerged as a potential solution. These facilities are already benefiting thousands of farmers and traders in Nigeria. But they are not reaching many others across sub-Saharan Africa.
In my recent research, I examined what was holding back progress. Focusing on tomato farming in Kilolo district in south-east Tanzania, I spoke to farmers, solar energy experts and policy experts to explore what needs to be done to improve access to cold storage facilities. I found that the barriers to uptake were limited awareness, the cost of the technology, farmers’ low capacity to pay, and consumer preference for non-refrigerated food. Practical policy interventions would include incentives to attract investment, payment flexibility to make technology more affordable, and greater awareness of the benefits of cold storage.
What causes tomato losses
Tomato production has huge agribusiness potential in Tanzania. However, small-scale farmers are confronted with several post-harvest management challenges.
In my interactions with farmers, I noticed that most tomatoes got damaged soon after harvesting due to poor handling, lack of proper storage and the use of motorbikes to transport tomatoes from farms to distant wholesale markets.
Due to a lack of storage facilities, farmers without pre-orders kept their harvest in a shaded open space while waiting for buyers. Some reported treating matured tomatoes with chemicals to delay ripening while waiting for buyers. Or they simply delayed harvesting them. When the rain comes, most tomatoes get spoiled very quickly. As a result of all these factors, post-harvest tomato losses could be as high as 60%.
Solar-powered cold storage technology
Tanzania has made significant progress in increasing access to solar energy technologies for rural populations. About 70% of rural households use appliances powered by solar. But high investment costs remain the most significant barrier to uptake.
A solar expert told me a 40ft solar-powered cold storage facility could cost about US$20,000 to set up. Given that most small-scale farmers are low-income earners, such a facility is beyond their means. As a result of small market share and the significant upfront costs involved, solar companies have been reluctant to venture into the cold storage technology business, added this solar expert. The capital cost constraint is also linked to poor financing for renewable energy programmes. In several parts of Africa, including Tanzania, insufficient foreign direct investment for solar energy projects has been identified as a major impediment to market growth.
Solar-powered technologies are a clean energy solution with environmental benefits. But they are rarely promoted; marketing is poor. In Tanzania, my interactions with farmers and traders revealed that the vast majority of the potential market had no basic knowledge of solar-powered cold storage. They were interested in using the technology to minimise losses during harvest season. But they weren’t sure how it would affect their business earnings. They needed more information.
Farmers and traders also expressed concerns about whether their regular clients would be willing to buy chilled or refrigerated tomatoes. I was surprised to hear that this was a potential problem. According to these farmers, most consumers in Tanzania prefer freshly harvested tomatoes. One said:
Distant buyers from Dar es Salaam, Tanga, or Dodoma sometimes opt to come straight to the farm and pick the tomatoes they want; usually, they prefer and want you to harvest those that are in the green stage so that they don’t spoil during transportation. These kinds of buyers will not buy tomatoes that have been stored in cold storage facility.
Experts suggested that this concern could stem from limited exposure to chilled and frozen foods among local populations in Africa. Solar service providers would need to be aware of this market reality.
Overcoming barriers
Solar-powered cold storage technology is of prime significance in Africa’s efforts to cut post-harvest losses and attain food security, as outlined in the African Union Malabo Declaration. But costs and affordability make it very challenging for African-based solar service providers. Private sector participation will be needed to increase financing and investment for cold storage technologies in emerging markets such as Tanzania. This can only be realised under a supportive regulatory environment and innovative policy incentives that attract capital.
The good news is that in the last few years, private financing for renewable energy programs in developing countries has more than doubled. The opportunities are opening up for African-based solar companies and their potential market.
Evodius Waziri Rutta is a Sustainability Researcher, Queen’s University, Ontario
Baobab trees are ancient marvels that thrive in some of Africa’s harshest landscapes. Some are more than 2,000 years old. Every part of the baobab is important – the leaves are consumed as vegetables, the tangy fruit pulp is nutritious, the seeds are a source of oil and the tree’s bark and roots are used in traditional medicine. These benefits have given the baobab superfood status. However, growing global demand is putting these giants at risk. Patrick Maundu explains what needs to be done to safeguard baobabs for future generations.
Where are baobabs found?
The tree is native to at least 37 countries in Africa and two in the Arabian Peninsula. The African baobab (Adansonia digitata) is the most widespread of the eight known baobab species. It endures in some of the harshest conditions, from salty water-bathed ocean shores to vast dry savannahs and forests. Of the rest of the baobabs, six are native to Madagascar, and one to northern and western Australia.
Baobabs are unique trees. They are among the world’s longest-living trees, with some being over 2,000 years old. They can survive prolonged droughts thanks to their ability to store water in their huge trunks, which can attain a diameter of 10 metres or more. The trunk has amazing regenerative ability, easily growing back after damage by humans in search of fibre or from wildlife like elephants trying to quench their thirst. Unlike most trees, which are adorned with lush leaves, the baobab often stands bare for the greater part of the year. Its thick, leafless branches stretch out like skeletal arms, creating a weird and almost mystical appearance. The tree has a slow growth rate. It starts to flower and produce fruits from about 20 years of age. In many cases, however, especially in arid regions, trees give their first fruit much later, with some known to start at 60 years.
What is Baobab’s significance?
In African cultures, every part of the baobab is valuable. The leaves are consumed as a nutritious vegetable. The fruit pulp, with its tangy taste, adds flavour to foods and beverages. Baobab pulp is rich in antioxidants, vitamins (like C and B complex), fibre and minerals (such as calcium, iron and magnesium).
The seeds are a source of oil in the cosmetic industry. The inner bark is harvested for its fibre, which is woven into ropes and baskets. Hollows in the trunk provide shelter for honey bees. The fruit shell is made into utensils and other household items. The baobab’s bark and root extracts are widely used in traditional medicine.
The inside of the baobab fruit.Alexander Joe/AFP via Getty Images
Because of its value, the baobab has attracted folklore and myths. Many African communities consider the tree sacred, often associating it with spirits. As a result, various ceremonies and rituals are conducted under it.
Ecologically, the baobab holds an important position in the landscape, supporting a wide range of wildlife, including fungi, insects, birds, reptiles, bats and monkeys. Its large trunk serves as a water reservoir. The elaborate root system stabilises the soil, preventing erosion. Fallen leaves enrich the soil with nutrients.
Additionally, the baobab acts as a carbon sink. This means it absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and packs it away, helping mitigate climate change.
Why is global demand for baobabs spiking?
The baobab’s reputation as a superfood is spreading. This has mainly been fuelled by the recognition of baobab pulp as a food ingredient by the European Union and the US Food and Drug Administration in 2008 and 2009, respectively. This opened the way for its use as an ingredient in drinks, foods, natural remedies and cosmetics.
Zimbabwe has become a trailblazer in this industry, aggressively targeting the lucrative European market.
Why is the tree under threat?
The baobab is under threat on several fronts. Its slow growth rate, huge size, long life and economic value expose the tree to many risks. Although some Madagascan baobab species are listed as either critically endangered or endangered, the African baobab is not. Yet, there is evidence that specific unique populations may be declining in parts of Africa, calling for more conscious conservation measures to be taken.
Climate change is already reshaping the ecosystems baobabs rely on. These ancient giants need a specific range of soil and air humidity. They also depend on specific pollinators, like bats and bush babies, for reproduction. However, rising temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns are disrupting these balances, affecting the overall health of the tree and reproductive capacity.
Changing community belief systems and local values are having an effect, too. The baobab’s sacred status is waning as modernity spreads. In some communities, the tree is now seen as a relic of the past. Further, the baobab’s expansive canopy and roots compete for space and nutrients with food crops amid shrinking agricultural space. This has intensified the tendency of communities to cut the tree.
The surge in commercial interest is a double-edged sword. The high demand for baobab pulp raises serious concerns about interference with natural regeneration, loss of genetic diversity and the health of baobab populations. Baobab is still harvested using crude methods – such as hitting the fruits from the ground or climbing on pegs inserted into the stem – that harm the tree.
This commercial interest has brought a new threat: biopiracy. This was witnessed in Kenya in 2022 when entire baobab trees were controversially uprooted and exported to Georgia in eastern Europe. Eight trees were exported but later died, signalling the lack of prior research about their viability in their new home.
This incident highlighted the lack of appropriate policies and regulatory frameworks to protect these important trees from exploitation, and underscored the urgent need for specific policies on safeguarding the baobab.
What should be done?
Safeguarding the baobab requires more than isolated efforts. It demands a blend of cultural and community protection, and conservation and management actions at the community level. It also requires strategic policy and regulatory frameworks, and collaboration on the national and global stages.
These policies should also support livelihood programmes for communities by supporting value chains and providing market linkages for baobab products. Promoting sustainable harvesting techniques, like leaving enough fruit for regeneration, will protect the trees and surrounding environments. Integrating indigenous knowledge with tools like genetic research will enhance these efforts.
James Kioko, who is part of the research team working with Dr Maundu on documenting the heritage of the baobab in Kenya, is a co-author of this article.
The southern African region is battling with drought at present. This is the result of El Niño, a natural climate cycle characterised by changes in Pacific Ocean temperatures. It has effects on global weather patterns, particularly rainfall and temperature.
The drought has hit the region’s agricultural productivity hard. Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe have declared a state of disaster with respect to their current agricultural outputs. They are seeking humanitarian assistance in the form of food aid to feed their people. The downturn also has economic implications, since over 70% of people residing in the region’s rural areas rely on agriculture for their livelihoods.
The dire situation underscores how important it is for the agricultural sector to prevent, avoid or prepare for the impacts of climate change, which will also bring extremes of weather.
One measure the sector can take is to cultivate biofuel crops. These are crops rich in starch, sugar or oils that can be converted into bioethanol directly or through a fermentation process. Bioethanol, a type of ethanol produced from biological or plant based sources, emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to fossil fuels like petroleum, natural gas and coal. Commonly used biofuel crops include sugarcane, maize, grain sorghum, sugar beet, rapeseeds and sunflower.
These conventional biofuel crops do have drawbacks, however. They are highly susceptible to extreme weather events. They require high upfront investment for fertilisers, chemicals and irrigation. And they compete with food production – if they’re grown as biofuels they can’t also be used as food because of how they have to be processed.
So, researchers are always on the lookout for crops that might be good biofuels without those problems. Sweet sorghum, which is indigenous to the African continent, is one such crop. Unlike the better-known sorghum, it has sweet juice in its stems. In a recent study, I reviewed scientific literature to analyse the potential significance of sweet sorghum to African farmers because of its multipurpose nature and ability to adapt under harsh climatic conditions.
Multiple uses
Sweet sorghum has many uses. It can produce grains, animal feed and sugary juice, making it unique among crops. The grains from sweet sorghum are prepared as steamed bread or porridge malt for traditional beer, as well as in commercial beer production across the continent.
They’re nutritionally rich, with high energy values (342 calories/100 g), proteins (10g/100 grains), carbohydrates (72.7g/100 grains), and fibre (2.2g/100 grains) as well as essential minerals such as potassium (44mg/100 grains), calcium (22mg/100 grains), sodium (8mg/100 grains) and iron (3.8mg/100 grains).
The nutritional value of maize is fairly similar: proteins (8.84g/100 grains), carbohydrates (71.88g/100 grains), fibre (2.1g/100 grains), potassium (286mg/100 grains), calcium (10mg/100 grains), sodium (15.9mg/100 grains) and iron (2.3mg/100 grains).
What sets sweet sorghum apart from a crop like maize is that it’s also resilient in arid climates and has multiple other uses. For instance, it produces a lot of plant material (biomass) as it grows, which is left over after harvest. That’s why it’s useful as animal feed too.
Animal feed is made from what remains once the sweet sorghum crop has been harvested and its grains and stem juice stripped off. The residue is high in nutritional content, which can improve the quality of diets of animals, including cattle. The grains can also be used for animal feed.
The sweet juice in the crop’s stalks is what’s used to create bioethanol. Sweet sorghum contains sucrose, glucose and fructose, which are essential for bioethanol production. Of the conventional biofuel crops I’ve mentioned, only sugarcane yields more ethanol. Studies in the United States have shown that sweet sorghum far outstrips maize when it comes to bioethanol production: it yields 8,102 litres per hectare planted, while maize yields just 4,209 litres per hectare.
Resilient
Perhaps most importantly given the southern African region’s current drought struggles, sweet sorghum is well-suited for cultivation in the sorts of adverse conditions that are typically challenging for conventional biofuel crops.
One of the key characteristics of sweet sorghum varieties is their drought resistance. It allows them to enter a dormant state during extended periods of dryness and resume growth afterwards. Research has shown that, under intense water scarcity conditions, sweet sorghum makes use of its stalk juice to supplement its plant needs.
Sweet sorghum’s ability to withstand low water and nitrogen inputs, as well as its tolerance for salinity and drought stress, makes it an ideal crop for farmers in arid regions. This is why it’s widely used in other parts of the world, including the US, Brazil and China.
Investing in sweet sorghum
The continent’s current agriculture value chain is dominated by major crops like maize, wheat and rice, which all originate from outside Africa. Not enough attention is given to crops of African origin, like sweet sorghum, even though it is a multipurpose, hardy crop with great potential for farmers. People are more familiar with sorghum, not the sweet variety, and it is also under-researched.
Governments should be using their agriculture extension services to raise awareness among farmers and consumers about the benefits and practical applications of sweet sorghum in people’s diets.
Developing recipes and secondary or industrial products can enhance the feasibility and awareness of sweet sorghum farming. By investing in research and development, the full potential of sweet sorghum cultivation can be unlocked through governments and the private sector.
Hamond Motsi is a PhD Student in Agriscience, Stellenbosch University
A common sight around west Africa is to see cattle grazing freely, even in major cities, on highways and in airports. Every year, about 300 million head of livestock (mostly cattle) move across west Africa. Based on seasonal factors, they leave their usual grazing areas in search of water and pasture.
These practices, called pastoralism, or transhumance, go back millennia. They helped maximise land use in dry regions. In a bid to support these practices, the Economic Community of West African State (Ecowas) drew up regulations in 1998 and 2003. All Ecowas member states were to apply the regulations.
As an expert in food and agricultural law, natural resources development and international trade, I examined the regulations to see what effects they might be having on investments in the livestock sector. My findings show that livestock productivity has not improved in the region since the introduction of the new rules. Cattle productivity has fallen and milk production has improved very minimally. Clashes between farmers and herders have increased, along with insecurity. Elites take advantage of the regulations to exploit poor herders.
I conclude that the regulations may be discouraging meaningful large-scale investments such as ranching that could increase productivity, create jobs and ensure peace in the region.
Movement of livestock across west Africa
Ecowas is the only regional economic community in Africa with specific regulations governing transhumance. The regional body is made up of 15 states.
Its regulations aim to improve livestock productivity and food security, enhance the environment and reduce poverty.
The regulations allow free movement of livestock across the borders of member states under certain conditions. For example, herders must possess the Ecowas International Transhumance Certificate, and a minimum of two herders must accompany the herds. The herders must be at least 18 years old.
Member states are obligated to apply the regulations. But they’re not doing so uniformly. Some coastal states don’t allow the herders into their countries. For instance, Benin Republic recently banned the entry of foreign herders into its territory. Togo and Côte d’Ivoire control the number of herders that enter their territories annually.
For its part, Nigeria is moving towards more sedentary cattle farming. Several states in Nigeria, such as Benue and Oyo, have also banned pastoralism.
These countries have restricted the movement of herds because of negative experiences such as farmer-herder clashes, cattle rustling and other forms of criminality.
Impact of Ecowas transhumance regulations
In my paper, I argue that Ecowas regulation allows transhumance to exist in a form that is inimical to other business investment options – like ranching – for livestock production in the region.
Investors want profit, safe environments and certainty in rules. Pastoralism, on the other hand, encourages cheap labour and other practices that put large-scale investment in livestock at risk.
Bad business environment
Transhumance has been commercialised – and criminalised – in ways that produce a negative environment for the livestock business.
Traffickers, smugglers, bandits and drug peddlers capitalise on livestock movement to commit crimes.
Proliferation of arms, terrorism, kidnapping and drug use have also increased in the guise of transhumance.
In Nigeria, for instance, it has been alleged that Boko Haram insurgents disguise themselves as pastoralists to convey improvised explosive devices to attack communities.
Limits modern methods
I also argue that the Ecowas regulations, by allowing herds to move around the region, discourage investment in modern methods of livestock production. This is because the cost of production in transhumance is low. Land and fodder are free. Labour is cheap and exploitative. All this makes other business models, such as ranching, relatively unattractive by comparison. It affects their profits and investment risks.
Some countries which practise pastoralism, such as Mongolia and Tibet, restrict it to arid regions.
What should be done
In my view, the practice of transhumance in west Africa should be gradually phased out. By this I mean a gradual – and then finally a total – ban on herder movements across borders.
This is because it is not an efficient use of land. About a third of west Africa’s land area is used for agriculture. Two-thirds of this serves as rangeland and pastures while one-third is used for crop production. Designated rangelands should be established in semi-arid areas of the region. Pastoralism should be restricted to these rangelands.
In my view conflict will be reduced if transhumance is restricted to arid and semi-arid regions. This in turn will make ranching more attractive, making room for large-scale investments that could create jobs and improve food security.
In the immediate future focus should be given to:
the strict implementation of the International Transhumance Certificate. The certificate usually contains particulars on the composition of the herd, the vaccinations given, the itinerary of the herds, and the destination of the pastoralist. The responsibility of issuing the certificate rests on the country of origin. This should reduce incidences of criminal elements disguised as herders.
limiting the number of cattle that people can have in a moving herd. This will help avoid herds straying, and resultant conflicts.
introducing new rules requiring the use of ear-tags. This would help with traceability when cattle are stolen or when they destroy farmlands.
By Jane Ezirigwe is a Postdoctoral Fellow, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa
