Baobab trees are ancient marvels that thrive in some of Africa’s harshest landscapes. Some are more than 2,000 years old. Every part of the baobab is important – the leaves are consumed as vegetables, the tangy fruit pulp is nutritious, the seeds are a source of oil and the tree’s bark and roots are used in traditional medicine. These benefits have given the baobab superfood status. However, growing global demand is putting these giants at risk. Patrick Maundu explains what needs to be done to safeguard baobabs for future generations.

Where are baobabs found?

The tree is native to at least 37 countries in Africa and two in the Arabian Peninsula. The African baobab (Adansonia digitata) is the most widespread of the eight known baobab species. It endures in some of the harshest conditions, from salty water-bathed ocean shores to vast dry savannahs and forests. Of the rest of the baobabs, six are native to Madagascar, and one to northern and western Australia.

Baobabs are unique trees. They are among the world’s longest-living trees, with some being over 2,000 years old. They can survive prolonged droughts thanks to their ability to store water in their huge trunks, which can attain a diameter of 10 metres or more. The trunk has amazing regenerative ability, easily growing back after damage by humans in search of fibre or from wildlife like elephants trying to quench their thirst. Unlike most trees, which are adorned with lush leaves, the baobab often stands bare for the greater part of the year. Its thick, leafless branches stretch out like skeletal arms, creating a weird and almost mystical appearance. The tree has a slow growth rate. It starts to flower and produce fruits from about 20 years of age. In many cases, however, especially in arid regions, trees give their first fruit much later, with some known to start at 60 years.

What is Baobab’s significance?

In African cultures, every part of the baobab is valuable. The leaves are consumed as a nutritious vegetable. The fruit pulp, with its tangy taste, adds flavour to foods and beverages. Baobab pulp is rich in antioxidants, vitamins (like C and B complex), fibre and minerals (such as calcium, iron and magnesium).

The seeds are a source of oil in the cosmetic industry. The inner bark is harvested for its fibre, which is woven into ropes and baskets. Hollows in the trunk provide shelter for honey bees. The fruit shell is made into utensils and other household items. The baobab’s bark and root extracts are widely used in traditional medicine.

Because of its value, the baobab has attracted folklore and myths. Many African communities consider the tree sacred, often associating it with spirits. As a result, various ceremonies and rituals are conducted under it.

Ecologically, the baobab holds an important position in the landscape, supporting a wide range of wildlife, including fungi, insects, birds, reptiles, bats and monkeys. Its large trunk serves as a water reservoir. The elaborate root system stabilises the soil, preventing erosion. Fallen leaves enrich the soil with nutrients.

Additionally, the baobab acts as a carbon sink. This means it absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and packs it away, helping mitigate climate change.

Why is global demand for baobabs spiking?

The baobab’s reputation as a superfood is spreading. This has mainly been fuelled by the recognition of baobab pulp as a food ingredient by the European Union and the US Food and Drug Administration in 2008 and 2009, respectively. This opened the way for its use as an ingredient in drinks, foods, natural remedies and cosmetics.

Zimbabwe has become a trailblazer in this industry, aggressively targeting the lucrative European market.

Why is the tree under threat?

The baobab is under threat on several fronts. Its slow growth rate, huge size, long life and economic value expose the tree to many risks. Although some Madagascan baobab species are listed as either critically endangered or endangered, the African baobab is not. Yet, there is evidence that specific unique populations may be declining in parts of Africa, calling for more conscious conservation measures to be taken.

Climate change is already reshaping the ecosystems baobabs rely on. These ancient giants need a specific range of soil and air humidity. They also depend on specific pollinators, like bats and bush babies, for reproduction. However, rising temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns are disrupting these balances, affecting the overall health of the tree and reproductive capacity.

Changing community belief systems and local values are having an effect, too. The baobab’s sacred status is waning as modernity spreads. In some communities, the tree is now seen as a relic of the past. Further, the baobab’s expansive canopy and roots compete for space and nutrients with food crops amid shrinking agricultural space. This has intensified the tendency of communities to cut the tree.

The surge in commercial interest is a double-edged sword. The high demand for baobab pulp raises serious concerns about interference with natural regeneration, loss of genetic diversity and the health of baobab populations. Baobab is still harvested using crude methods – such as hitting the fruits from the ground or climbing on pegs inserted into the stem – that harm the tree.

This commercial interest has brought a new threat: biopiracy. This was witnessed in Kenya in 2022 when entire baobab trees were controversially uprooted and exported to Georgia in eastern Europe. Eight trees were exported but later died, signalling the lack of prior research about their viability in their new home.

This incident highlighted the lack of appropriate policies and regulatory frameworks to protect these important trees from exploitation, and underscored the urgent need for specific policies on safeguarding the baobab.

What should be done?

Safeguarding the baobab requires more than isolated efforts. It demands a blend of cultural and community protection, and conservation and management actions at the community level. It also requires strategic policy and regulatory frameworks, and collaboration on the national and global stages.

These policies should also support livelihood programmes for communities by supporting value chains and providing market linkages for baobab products. Promoting sustainable harvesting techniques, like leaving enough fruit for regeneration, will protect the trees and surrounding environments. Integrating indigenous knowledge with tools like genetic research will enhance these efforts.

James Kioko, who is part of the research team working with Dr Maundu on documenting the heritage of the baobab in Kenya, is a co-author of this article.

Courtesy: The Conversation

By Jane Ezirigwe

A common sight around west Africa is to see cattle grazing freely, even in major cities, on highways and in airports. Every year, about 300 million head of livestock (mostly cattle) move across west Africa. Based on seasonal factors, they leave their usual grazing areas in search of water and pasture.

These practices, called pastoralism, or transhumance, go back millennia. They helped maximise land use in dry regions. In a bid to support these practices, the Economic Community of West African State (Ecowas) drew up regulations in 1998 and 2003. All Ecowas member states were to apply the regulations.

As an expert in food and agricultural law, natural resources development and international trade, I examined the regulations to see what effects they might be having on investments in the livestock sector. My findings show that livestock productivity has not improved in the region since the introduction of the new rules. Cattle productivity has fallen and milk production has improved very minimally. Clashes between farmers and herders have increased, along with insecurity. Elites take advantage of the regulations to exploit poor herders.

I conclude that the regulations may be discouraging meaningful large-scale investments such as ranching that could increase productivity, create jobs and ensure peace in the region.

Movement of livestock across west Africa

Ecowas is the only regional economic community in Africa with specific regulations governing transhumance. The regional body is made up of 15 states.

Its regulations aim to improve livestock productivity and food security, enhance the environment and reduce poverty.

The regulations allow free movement of livestock across the borders of member states under certain conditions. For example, herders must possess the Ecowas International Transhumance Certificate, and a minimum of two herders must accompany the herds. The herders must be at least 18 years old.

Member states are obligated to apply the regulations. But they’re not doing so uniformly. Some coastal states don’t allow the herders into their countries. For instance, Benin Republic recently banned the entry of foreign herders into its territory. Togo and Côte d’Ivoire control the number of herders that enter their territories annually.

For its part, Nigeria is moving towards more sedentary cattle farming. Several states in Nigeria, such as Benue and Oyo, have also banned pastoralism.

These countries have restricted the movement of herds because of negative experiences such as farmer-herder clashes, cattle rustling and other forms of criminality.

Impact of Ecowas transhumance regulations

In my paper, I argue that Ecowas regulation allows transhumance to exist in a form that is inimical to other business investment options – like ranching – for livestock production in the region.

Investors want profit, safe environments and certainty in rules. Pastoralism, on the other hand, encourages cheap labour and other practices that put large-scale investment in livestock at risk.

Bad business environment

Transhumance has been commercialised – and criminalised – in ways that produce a negative environment for the livestock business.

Movement of herds has contributed to conflicts between farmers and pastoralists, gender-based violence, insecurity and other forms of criminality.

Traffickers, smugglers, bandits and drug peddlers capitalise on livestock movement to commit crimes.

Proliferation of arms, terrorism, kidnapping and drug use have also increased in the guise of transhumance.

In Nigeria, for instance, it has been alleged that Boko Haram insurgents disguise themselves as pastoralists to convey improvised explosive devices to attack communities.

Limits modern methods

I also argue that the Ecowas regulations, by allowing herds to move around the region, discourage investment in modern methods of livestock production. This is because the cost of production in transhumance is low. Land and fodder are free. Labour is cheap and exploitative. All this makes other business models, such as ranching, relatively unattractive by comparison. It affects their profits and investment risks.

Some countries which practise pastoralism, such as Mongolia and Tibet, restrict it to arid regions.

What should be done

In my view, the practice of transhumance in west Africa should be gradually phased out. By this I mean a gradual – and then finally a total – ban on herder movements across borders.

This is because it is not an efficient use of land. About a third of west Africa’s land area is used for agriculture. Two-thirds of this serves as rangeland and pastures while one-third is used for crop production. Designated rangelands should be established in semi-arid areas of the region. Pastoralism should be restricted to these rangelands.

In my view conflict will be reduced if transhumance is restricted to arid and semi-arid regions. This in turn will make ranching more attractive, making room for large-scale investments that could create jobs and improve food security.

In the immediate future focus should be given to:

• the strict implementation of the International Transhumance Certificate. The certificate usually contains particulars on the composition of the herd, the vaccinations given, the itinerary of the herds, and the destination of the pastoralist. The responsibility of issuing the certificate rests on the country of origin. This should reduce incidences of criminal elements disguised as herders.
• limiting the number of cattle that people can have in a moving herd. This will help avoid herds straying, and resultant conflicts.

• introducing new rules requiring the use of ear-tags. This would help with traceability when cattle are stolen or when they destroy farmlands.

By Jane Ezirigwe is a Postdoctoral Fellow, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa

Tomatoes are one of the most commonly used ingredients in the culinary world, yet there has been a long-standing debate regarding their classification as either a fruit or a vegetable. This debate has been ongoing for centuries, with no clear consensus being reached. In this article, we will explore the science behind this debate and try to unravel the mystery of whether tomatoes are a fruit or a vegetable.

Tomatoes are one of the most commonly used ingredients in the culinary world, yet there has been a long-standing debate regarding their classification as either a fruit or a vegetable. This debate has been ongoing for centuries, with no clear consensus being reached. In this article, we will explore the science behind this debate and try to unravel the mystery of whether tomatoes are a fruit or a vegetable.

The Great Tomato Debate: Fruit or Vegetable?

The Definition of a Fruit vs. a Vegetable

Before we dive into the tomato debate, let’s first define what constitutes a fruit versus a vegetable. Botanically speaking, a fruit is the mature ovary of a flowering plant, containing seeds. This means that any edible plant that contains seeds is a fruit. On the other hand, vegetables are typically defined as the edible parts of plants that do not contain seeds, such as leaves, stems, and roots.

The Botanical Perspective

When it comes to tomatoes, botanically speaking, they are classified as a fruit. This is because they contain seeds and are derived from the ovary of a flowering plant. Tomatoes belong to the same family as other fruits such as apples, oranges, and grapes.

However, the confusion arises because tomatoes are often used in savory dishes and are treated as a vegetable in culinary contexts. This is due to their mild flavor and their ability to be cooked and used in a wide range of dishes, from salads to sauces.

Seedy Secrets: Why Some Vegetables Are Technically Fruits

It’s a fascinating fact that many vegetables we consume, such as cucumbers, peppers, zucchini tomatoes, pumpkins, and other squash, contain seeds, yet they are not classified as fruits. The reason behind this lies in the botanical definition of fruits and vegetables. Fruits are the mature ovaries of flowering plants that grow after fertilization and contain seeds that aid in reproduction. Vegetables, on the other hand, refer to any edible portion of a plant, including roots, leaves, stems, and even flowers. As a result, while being officially classed as fruits due to their seed-bearing nature, they are nonetheless considered vegetables based on their cultural and culinary usage. So, the next time you savor a juicy tomato or a crunchy bell pepper, keep in mind that despite their seedy secrets, they are still regarded as savory vegetables in the culinary world.

The Legal Perspective

The debate over whether tomatoes are a fruit or a vegetable has even made its way into the legal system. In 1893, the United States Supreme Court ruled that tomatoes should be classified as a vegetable for taxation. The decision was based on the fact that tomatoes were typically used in savory dishes and therefore should be considered a vegetable.

However, from a botanical perspective, the Supreme Court’s ruling was incorrect. This decision has led to a continued debate over whether tomatoes should be classified as a fruit or a vegetable in various contexts.

The Nutritional Perspective

Regardless of whether tomatoes are considered a fruit or a vegetable, they are a highly nutritious food. Tomatoes are an excellent source of vitamin C, potassium, folate, and vitamin K. They also contain antioxidants, such as lycopene, which may help reduce the risk of certain diseases.

Tomatoes are also low in calories and high in fiber, making them a great food for those looking to maintain a healthy weight. Whether you choose to classify them as a fruit or a vegetable, there’s no denying that tomatoes are a nutritious addition to any diet.

Incorporating Tomatoes into Your Diet

Whether you prefer to classify tomatoes as a fruit or a vegetable, they are delicious. Tomatoes can be eaten raw in salads or sandwiches, or cooked in a wide range of dishes such as soups, stews, sauces, and more. With their bright color, juicy texture, and sweet, tangy flavor, tomatoes are a true culinary staple that can be enjoyed year-round.

While the great tomato debate may never be fully resolved, it’s clear that tomatoes are a versatile and nutritious food that can be enjoyed in a wide range of dishes. Botanically speaking, tomatoes are classified as a fruit, but they are often treated as a vegetable in culinary contexts. Regardless of their classification, tomatoes are an excellent source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, and should be included in a healthy and balanced diet.