Annual consumption of food and agriculture products rose by 48% between 2001 and 2018 – more than twice the rate of increase in human population – as reported in a new analysis published by the Tropical Forest Alliance at the World Economic Forum entitled Forests, food systems and livelihoods: Trends, forecasts and solutions to reframe approaches to protecting forests.
The report, which tracks the relationship between the rising demand for food and agricultural products and deforestation, paints a picture of increasing competing demands on tropical forest landscapes. Since 2001, 160 million people have been lifted out of poverty and undernourishment increasing the per capita food consumption, particularly protein which has risen 45% since 2000.
In producer countries, these trends are often linked to economic development and rural livelihoods that creates a set of complex trade-offs for decision makers. For example, soybeans are now the most valuable export product for Brazil, and around 16.3 million people (12% of the total workforce) are employed in the palm oil industry in Indonesia.
The report also highlights the significant loss of primary forests, which are rich stores of carbon and biodiversity. An area exceeding 60 million hectares of primary tropical forests have been lost since 2002 – almost the size of France. The loss was 12% higher in 2020 than the previous year, despite all the efforts by governments, businesses and civil society. More than 80% of this deforestation happened in landscapes where agriculture is the dominant driver and much of this is linked to the production of globally traded commodities including soy, palm oil, cattle, cocoa, coffee and wood pulp.
In the face of this reality, the report concludes that those working to reverse deforestation need to deploy systemic solutions that take into account the multiple competing demands on these landscapes. For example, incentives can be provided for farmers to conserve more while producing food, with potential sources coming from both carbon finance and domestic finance for rural credit. More effort needs to be applied to boost productivity sustainably, particularly for smallholder farmers in the face of greater climatic stress. Improved technical assistance and new plant material to help increase yields, as well as support with the diversification of income streams, are essential.
Mr Samuel Abu Jinapor, the Minister of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana says: “The time for action is now. We will pursue progressive policies with the overarching view to restoring the forest cover of Ghana, thereby contributing to the global effort against climate change.”
Justin Adams, Executive Director, Tropical Forest Alliance, says: “No single policy or solution can resolve this. Commodity-driven deforestation must not be treated in isolation – either as a purely environmental issue or a supply-chain problem. Keeping forests standing is linked directly to sustaining rural livelihoods, ensuring food security for a growing global population and supporting economic development. Crucially, the community of action working on this issue must broaden beyond those engaged at the forest frontier and environmental issues to include actors in the food system more broadly, such as farmers, local communities, local businesses and local governments.”
There is some evidence that private sector supply-chain strategies are helping to reduce deforestation. For example, Nestlé has assessed that 90% of key ingredients – including palm oil, sugar, soy and meat – are deforestation-free as of last year, and has committed to 100% deforestation-free products by 2025. Magdi Batato, the Executive Vice President and Head of Operations of Nestlé says: “A forest positive future is possible if the private sector collectively moves its focus on achieving a positive impact in the critical landscapes that underpin our food systems, and if we work hand-in-hand with farmers and local communities, and governments to form wider solutions across local, regional and global levels. The benefits are numerous: more resilient communities and livelihoods, more sustainable food systems, and a healthier planet.”
While many companies are committing to ambitious efforts in their own supply chains, it is also critical that this is done in conjunction with a broader sector-wide transformation to reduce net deforestation. Landscape-scale or jurisdictional approaches, which promote sustainable practices by rooting them in local governance systems, offer a practical way for both companies and governments to collaborate.
Christine Montenegro McGrath, Vice President and Chief Global Impact and Sustainability, Mondelēz International and Co-Chair, Consumer Goods Forum Forest Positive Coalition of Action says: “Important shifts are taking place – and as we look ahead to the UN Food Systems Summit and COP26 this year – we need to integrate food production as a critical part of the collective action required to meet both the Paris Agreement and goals on biodiversity. This report shows that landscape-scale initiatives provide a crucial piece of that puzzle for businesses who are on the journey to becoming forest-positive.”
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) last month provided alarming evidence about the irreversible changes to the climate including for forests, and has also established that climate change is already having an adverse impact on food security and terrestrial ecosystems, with the tropics among the most vulnerable regions in terms of crop yields. This report predicts a shrinking agricultural labour force, posing even further risks for agricultural production.
President of the World Economic Forum Borge Brende says: “This combination of risks from climate change and demographic shifts suggests that the rural development models that have underpinned the expansion of tropical agriculture in the first two decades of the century are coming under increasing pressure from several angles. This underpins the need for a multistakeholder approach to find systemic solutions exemplified by the work of the Tropical Forest Alliance and the FACT Dialogue that will be presenting its findings at COP26 in Glasgow.”
Finally, the report points to the need to tackle data gaps that can enhance transparency in supply chains. There have been a number of promising innovations in recent years in improving transparency and data quality, especially the use of satellite imagery. However, despite this progress, gaps remain, including concession boundary maps, trade and export data, distinguishing between tree cover loss and deforestation, spatial data on crop production, incorporating information on time lags (between deforestation and associated production) and improving the rigour by which drivers of deforestation are understood.
Baobab trees are ancient marvels that thrive in some of Africa’s harshest landscapes. Some are more than 2,000 years old. Every part of the baobab is important – the leaves are consumed as vegetables, the tangy fruit pulp is nutritious, the seeds are a source of oil and the tree’s bark and roots are used in traditional medicine. These benefits have given the baobab superfood status. However, growing global demand is putting these giants at risk. Patrick Maundu explains what needs to be done to safeguard baobabs for future generations.
Where are baobabs found?
The tree is native to at least 37 countries in Africa and two in the Arabian Peninsula. The African baobab (Adansonia digitata) is the most widespread of the eight known baobab species. It endures in some of the harshest conditions, from salty water-bathed ocean shores to vast dry savannahs and forests. Of the rest of the baobabs, six are native to Madagascar, and one to northern and western Australia.
Baobabs are unique trees. They are among the world’s longest-living trees, with some being over 2,000 years old. They can survive prolonged droughts thanks to their ability to store water in their huge trunks, which can attain a diameter of 10 metres or more. The trunk has amazing regenerative ability, easily growing back after damage by humans in search of fibre or from wildlife like elephants trying to quench their thirst. Unlike most trees, which are adorned with lush leaves, the baobab often stands bare for the greater part of the year. Its thick, leafless branches stretch out like skeletal arms, creating a weird and almost mystical appearance. The tree has a slow growth rate. It starts to flower and produce fruits from about 20 years of age. In many cases, however, especially in arid regions, trees give their first fruit much later, with some known to start at 60 years.
What is Baobab’s significance?
In African cultures, every part of the baobab is valuable. The leaves are consumed as a nutritious vegetable. The fruit pulp, with its tangy taste, adds flavour to foods and beverages. Baobab pulp is rich in antioxidants, vitamins (like C and B complex), fibre and minerals (such as calcium, iron and magnesium).
The seeds are a source of oil in the cosmetic industry. The inner bark is harvested for its fibre, which is woven into ropes and baskets. Hollows in the trunk provide shelter for honey bees. The fruit shell is made into utensils and other household items. The baobab’s bark and root extracts are widely used in traditional medicine.
The inside of the baobab fruit.Alexander Joe/AFP via Getty Images
Because of its value, the baobab has attracted folklore and myths. Many African communities consider the tree sacred, often associating it with spirits. As a result, various ceremonies and rituals are conducted under it.
Ecologically, the baobab holds an important position in the landscape, supporting a wide range of wildlife, including fungi, insects, birds, reptiles, bats and monkeys. Its large trunk serves as a water reservoir. The elaborate root system stabilises the soil, preventing erosion. Fallen leaves enrich the soil with nutrients.
Additionally, the baobab acts as a carbon sink. This means it absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and packs it away, helping mitigate climate change.
Why is global demand for baobabs spiking?
The baobab’s reputation as a superfood is spreading. This has mainly been fuelled by the recognition of baobab pulp as a food ingredient by the European Union and the US Food and Drug Administration in 2008 and 2009, respectively. This opened the way for its use as an ingredient in drinks, foods, natural remedies and cosmetics.
Zimbabwe has become a trailblazer in this industry, aggressively targeting the lucrative European market.
Why is the tree under threat?
The baobab is under threat on several fronts. Its slow growth rate, huge size, long life and economic value expose the tree to many risks. Although some Madagascan baobab species are listed as either critically endangered or endangered, the African baobab is not. Yet, there is evidence that specific unique populations may be declining in parts of Africa, calling for more conscious conservation measures to be taken.
Climate change is already reshaping the ecosystems baobabs rely on. These ancient giants need a specific range of soil and air humidity. They also depend on specific pollinators, like bats and bush babies, for reproduction. However, rising temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns are disrupting these balances, affecting the overall health of the tree and reproductive capacity.
Changing community belief systems and local values are having an effect, too. The baobab’s sacred status is waning as modernity spreads. In some communities, the tree is now seen as a relic of the past. Further, the baobab’s expansive canopy and roots compete for space and nutrients with food crops amid shrinking agricultural space. This has intensified the tendency of communities to cut the tree.
The surge in commercial interest is a double-edged sword. The high demand for baobab pulp raises serious concerns about interference with natural regeneration, loss of genetic diversity and the health of baobab populations. Baobab is still harvested using crude methods – such as hitting the fruits from the ground or climbing on pegs inserted into the stem – that harm the tree.
This commercial interest has brought a new threat: biopiracy. This was witnessed in Kenya in 2022 when entire baobab trees were controversially uprooted and exported to Georgia in eastern Europe. Eight trees were exported but later died, signalling the lack of prior research about their viability in their new home.
This incident highlighted the lack of appropriate policies and regulatory frameworks to protect these important trees from exploitation, and underscored the urgent need for specific policies on safeguarding the baobab.
What should be done?
Safeguarding the baobab requires more than isolated efforts. It demands a blend of cultural and community protection, and conservation and management actions at the community level. It also requires strategic policy and regulatory frameworks, and collaboration on the national and global stages.
These policies should also support livelihood programmes for communities by supporting value chains and providing market linkages for baobab products. Promoting sustainable harvesting techniques, like leaving enough fruit for regeneration, will protect the trees and surrounding environments. Integrating indigenous knowledge with tools like genetic research will enhance these efforts.
James Kioko, who is part of the research team working with Dr Maundu on documenting the heritage of the baobab in Kenya, is a co-author of this article.
The southern African region is battling with drought at present. This is the result of El Niño, a natural climate cycle characterised by changes in Pacific Ocean temperatures. It has effects on global weather patterns, particularly rainfall and temperature.
The drought has hit the region’s agricultural productivity hard. Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe have declared a state of disaster with respect to their current agricultural outputs. They are seeking humanitarian assistance in the form of food aid to feed their people. The downturn also has economic implications, since over 70% of people residing in the region’s rural areas rely on agriculture for their livelihoods.
The dire situation underscores how important it is for the agricultural sector to prevent, avoid or prepare for the impacts of climate change, which will also bring extremes of weather.
One measure the sector can take is to cultivate biofuel crops. These are crops rich in starch, sugar or oils that can be converted into bioethanol directly or through a fermentation process. Bioethanol, a type of ethanol produced from biological or plant based sources, emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to fossil fuels like petroleum, natural gas and coal. Commonly used biofuel crops include sugarcane, maize, grain sorghum, sugar beet, rapeseeds and sunflower.
These conventional biofuel crops do have drawbacks, however. They are highly susceptible to extreme weather events. They require high upfront investment for fertilisers, chemicals and irrigation. And they compete with food production – if they’re grown as biofuels they can’t also be used as food because of how they have to be processed.
So, researchers are always on the lookout for crops that might be good biofuels without those problems. Sweet sorghum, which is indigenous to the African continent, is one such crop. Unlike the better-known sorghum, it has sweet juice in its stems. In a recent study, I reviewed scientific literature to analyse the potential significance of sweet sorghum to African farmers because of its multipurpose nature and ability to adapt under harsh climatic conditions.
Multiple uses
Sweet sorghum has many uses. It can produce grains, animal feed and sugary juice, making it unique among crops. The grains from sweet sorghum are prepared as steamed bread or porridge malt for traditional beer, as well as in commercial beer production across the continent.
They’re nutritionally rich, with high energy values (342 calories/100 g), proteins (10g/100 grains), carbohydrates (72.7g/100 grains), and fibre (2.2g/100 grains) as well as essential minerals such as potassium (44mg/100 grains), calcium (22mg/100 grains), sodium (8mg/100 grains) and iron (3.8mg/100 grains).
The nutritional value of maize is fairly similar: proteins (8.84g/100 grains), carbohydrates (71.88g/100 grains), fibre (2.1g/100 grains), potassium (286mg/100 grains), calcium (10mg/100 grains), sodium (15.9mg/100 grains) and iron (2.3mg/100 grains).
What sets sweet sorghum apart from a crop like maize is that it’s also resilient in arid climates and has multiple other uses. For instance, it produces a lot of plant material (biomass) as it grows, which is left over after harvest. That’s why it’s useful as animal feed too.
Animal feed is made from what remains once the sweet sorghum crop has been harvested and its grains and stem juice stripped off. The residue is high in nutritional content, which can improve the quality of diets of animals, including cattle. The grains can also be used for animal feed.
The sweet juice in the crop’s stalks is what’s used to create bioethanol. Sweet sorghum contains sucrose, glucose and fructose, which are essential for bioethanol production. Of the conventional biofuel crops I’ve mentioned, only sugarcane yields more ethanol. Studies in the United States have shown that sweet sorghum far outstrips maize when it comes to bioethanol production: it yields 8,102 litres per hectare planted, while maize yields just 4,209 litres per hectare.
Resilient
Perhaps most importantly given the southern African region’s current drought struggles, sweet sorghum is well-suited for cultivation in the sorts of adverse conditions that are typically challenging for conventional biofuel crops.
One of the key characteristics of sweet sorghum varieties is their drought resistance. It allows them to enter a dormant state during extended periods of dryness and resume growth afterwards. Research has shown that, under intense water scarcity conditions, sweet sorghum makes use of its stalk juice to supplement its plant needs.
Sweet sorghum’s ability to withstand low water and nitrogen inputs, as well as its tolerance for salinity and drought stress, makes it an ideal crop for farmers in arid regions. This is why it’s widely used in other parts of the world, including the US, Brazil and China.
Investing in sweet sorghum
The continent’s current agriculture value chain is dominated by major crops like maize, wheat and rice, which all originate from outside Africa. Not enough attention is given to crops of African origin, like sweet sorghum, even though it is a multipurpose, hardy crop with great potential for farmers. People are more familiar with sorghum, not the sweet variety, and it is also under-researched.
Governments should be using their agriculture extension services to raise awareness among farmers and consumers about the benefits and practical applications of sweet sorghum in people’s diets.
Developing recipes and secondary or industrial products can enhance the feasibility and awareness of sweet sorghum farming. By investing in research and development, the full potential of sweet sorghum cultivation can be unlocked through governments and the private sector.
Hamond Motsi is a PhD Student in Agriscience, Stellenbosch University
A common sight around west Africa is to see cattle grazing freely, even in major cities, on highways and in airports. Every year, about 300 million head of livestock (mostly cattle) move across west Africa. Based on seasonal factors, they leave their usual grazing areas in search of water and pasture.
These practices, called pastoralism, or transhumance, go back millennia. They helped maximise land use in dry regions. In a bid to support these practices, the Economic Community of West African State (Ecowas) drew up regulations in 1998 and 2003. All Ecowas member states were to apply the regulations.
As an expert in food and agricultural law, natural resources development and international trade, I examined the regulations to see what effects they might be having on investments in the livestock sector. My findings show that livestock productivity has not improved in the region since the introduction of the new rules. Cattle productivity has fallen and milk production has improved very minimally. Clashes between farmers and herders have increased, along with insecurity. Elites take advantage of the regulations to exploit poor herders.
I conclude that the regulations may be discouraging meaningful large-scale investments such as ranching that could increase productivity, create jobs and ensure peace in the region.
Movement of livestock across west Africa
Ecowas is the only regional economic community in Africa with specific regulations governing transhumance. The regional body is made up of 15 states.
Its regulations aim to improve livestock productivity and food security, enhance the environment and reduce poverty.
The regulations allow free movement of livestock across the borders of member states under certain conditions. For example, herders must possess the Ecowas International Transhumance Certificate, and a minimum of two herders must accompany the herds. The herders must be at least 18 years old.
Member states are obligated to apply the regulations. But they’re not doing so uniformly. Some coastal states don’t allow the herders into their countries. For instance, Benin Republic recently banned the entry of foreign herders into its territory. Togo and Côte d’Ivoire control the number of herders that enter their territories annually.
For its part, Nigeria is moving towards more sedentary cattle farming. Several states in Nigeria, such as Benue and Oyo, have also banned pastoralism.
These countries have restricted the movement of herds because of negative experiences such as farmer-herder clashes, cattle rustling and other forms of criminality.
Impact of Ecowas transhumance regulations
In my paper, I argue that Ecowas regulation allows transhumance to exist in a form that is inimical to other business investment options – like ranching – for livestock production in the region.
Investors want profit, safe environments and certainty in rules. Pastoralism, on the other hand, encourages cheap labour and other practices that put large-scale investment in livestock at risk.
Bad business environment
Transhumance has been commercialised – and criminalised – in ways that produce a negative environment for the livestock business.
Traffickers, smugglers, bandits and drug peddlers capitalise on livestock movement to commit crimes.
Proliferation of arms, terrorism, kidnapping and drug use have also increased in the guise of transhumance.
In Nigeria, for instance, it has been alleged that Boko Haram insurgents disguise themselves as pastoralists to convey improvised explosive devices to attack communities.
Limits modern methods
I also argue that the Ecowas regulations, by allowing herds to move around the region, discourage investment in modern methods of livestock production. This is because the cost of production in transhumance is low. Land and fodder are free. Labour is cheap and exploitative. All this makes other business models, such as ranching, relatively unattractive by comparison. It affects their profits and investment risks.
Some countries which practise pastoralism, such as Mongolia and Tibet, restrict it to arid regions.
What should be done
In my view, the practice of transhumance in west Africa should be gradually phased out. By this I mean a gradual – and then finally a total – ban on herder movements across borders.
This is because it is not an efficient use of land. About a third of west Africa’s land area is used for agriculture. Two-thirds of this serves as rangeland and pastures while one-third is used for crop production. Designated rangelands should be established in semi-arid areas of the region. Pastoralism should be restricted to these rangelands.
In my view conflict will be reduced if transhumance is restricted to arid and semi-arid regions. This in turn will make ranching more attractive, making room for large-scale investments that could create jobs and improve food security.
In the immediate future focus should be given to:
the strict implementation of the International Transhumance Certificate. The certificate usually contains particulars on the composition of the herd, the vaccinations given, the itinerary of the herds, and the destination of the pastoralist. The responsibility of issuing the certificate rests on the country of origin. This should reduce incidences of criminal elements disguised as herders.
limiting the number of cattle that people can have in a moving herd. This will help avoid herds straying, and resultant conflicts.
introducing new rules requiring the use of ear-tags. This would help with traceability when cattle are stolen or when they destroy farmlands.
By Jane Ezirigwe is a Postdoctoral Fellow, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa
